Abstract: I compare certain features of the UK, US and German university education systems point by point. I simply state facts and do not attempt to evaluate. I indicate equivalent concepts by their English and German names where they arise. There are no comments on the research functions of the universities.

I have personal experience of the teaching and learning systems (they are not the same thing) in Germany, Great Britain and the United States. I have also had a chance to observe the systems in Switzerland and France for extended periods of time (8-9 months each) although I did not participate directly.

Studying in Great Britain

• Students are accepted by a university for a particular course of specialist study (Studiengang) before they start

• The number of places for students in a course of study is fixed by the available departmental resources

• These places are filled competitively from the pool of applicants

• The time planning (what is studied, when, and when it is assessed) for an entire course of study is laid out in advance

• If a student doesn't adhere to the schedule, (s)he will be dropped from the course of study entirely (although provision is made for `normal' deviation)

• Learning is supported by staff. The tutorial system is highly-valued: students meet once a week, individually, in pairs, or in small groups (say, 5 students) with a teaching-staff member (equivalent to a Privatdozent, Hochschuldozent or Professor) once a week to discuss individual work and difficulties in course work. Tutorials cannot be supported by all universities, because of cost. Teaching staff are also available individually to students to varying degrees, depending on whether the tutorial system is followed and on other university learning structure

• Courses are often supported by text books, which are followed to varying degrees depending on course and university

• Courses are officially compared across universities; there are often standard curricula for technical subjects, which are accredited by the professional societies. These curricula consist of individual courses, which at the lower levels (equivalent to, say, Vordiplom) also are similar in content across universities.

• Student assessment varies, but is usually by means of three-hour written examinations (Klausuren). These examinations are taken usually at the end of the second and third years, with a set of first-year exams to discover those who are unlikely successfully to complete the course of study. There are large variations (my entire Oxford degree depended on taking 7 three-hour written papers, as they are called there, within 5 specific days set in advance at the end of my third year; the historians took 11 such papers in 5.5 days...)

• Teaching, learning, and achievement are also assessed by experts from outside the university, usually academic staff from other universities. Teaching and learning are assessed in Teaching Quality Assessment Reports, prepared by such outside experts for the national government body responsible for overall funding (HEFCE). These reports are publically available -- see, for example, Quality Assessment Report for University of York Computing (1994). Such assessments occur every few years. Also, achievement is assessed for every student for every course of study (Studiengang). An outside examiner is appointed from another university to each faculty to control the quality and uniformity of the degrees awarded in that faculty. Overall student-achievement results are compared across universities

• Teaching quality is formally assessed by students in varying ways depending on the university and individual faculty. When I was at Oxford in 1970-73, there was no formal assessment of teaching by students. In York now, there are annual assessments of teaching. Such formal assessments are used to inflence curriculum, the Teaching Quality Assessment Report, and influence the teaching of individual professors and graduate students

• Students finish a Bachelor's degree (Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science) in their course of study in 3 or 4 years. Afterwards, one may pursue postgraduate study, usually towards a Master's (Master of Arts, Master of Science) degree, which involves a further, more specialised, course of study for 1 or 2 years.

• To obtain a research degree, a PhD or D.Phil, one must be admitted as a graduate student: there are usually no course requirements; one pursues research under supervision of an individual advisor, Doktorvater, and writes (and defends by oral examination, Prüfung) one's thesis (Doktorarbeit). PhD's at UK universities are of a generally comparable standard to those in Germany.

• Students enter university at 18 (17 or 19 is not uncommon, 14 is not unknown!) and finish a Bachelor's degree when they are 21 or 22.

• A Bachelor's is more than a Vordiplom at Bielefeld, but less than a Diplom

• Diplom degrees in my group RVS can be equivalent to good Master's degrees from good universities in the UK. Or less. But UK students will typically attain that level when they are 22 or 23. PhD's are typically obtained at age Bachelor's + 3/4 = 25-27

• Proactive steps are taken to introduce students to the task of studying and learning at a university. This consists of a more formal course structure and monitoring of progress. Positive steps are often taken to avoid drop-outs or loss of motivation.

• 30 years ago, universities were elite institutions catering to 2-3% of school-leavers. Today they cater to about 20% and the goals are 30% and higher.

Studying in the US

• Students are accepted by a university on the basis of overall performance, but not for a particular course of study (a major)

• Students will typically complete 2-3 semesters of courses, both preliminary courses for their major and `general' courses outside their major, before applying to enter their major

• The number of places for students in a major is fixed by the available departmental resources

• Places in a major are filled competitively from the pool of applicants

• The time planning (what is studied, when, and when it is assessed) for an entire course of study, which includes both courses in the major as well as other courses outside the major taken to satisfy the breadth requirement, is recommended but not enforced

• After matriculation (admittance) to a university, students enrol for each individual semester. During a semester in which they are enrolled, they are required to undertake a `full load' of courses if they are full-time students. Course load is measured in units corresponding to hours per week of class time (Semesterwochenstunden), and is usually 12 units for full-time study.

• There are no specific requisites as to which courses must be taken when; but, because of course sequences required for particular subjects, in practice the choice is constrained for those who wish to follow a certain major

• One may drop (resign from) courses, or even the entire semester, within the first few weeks of any semester. Beyond this period, a student must stay in and be assessed (obtain a grade, eine Note). If a student does poorly in a course, (s)he may usually reenroll in the same course in a later semester (up to a limit), to try to improve hisher grade.

• Learning in the lower division (first four semesters, Vordiplom) is supported by graduate-student teaching assistants, who hold tutorial classes of 15-25 students for one hour, twice a week, per course, in which the course work of the students and the answers to the `homework' is discussed in detail. For a basis course in computer science, 3 hours of lecture plus two hours of tutorial (and/or laboratory work) per week is common. All teachers (professors, lecturers and graduate students) hold office hours (Sprechstunden) - usually three per week - during which they are available for individual consultation by students

• Courses are supported by an explicit `required' text book, which for lower-division courses is often followed very closely (which parts of which chapters in which lectures is determined often in advance, often by faculty committee, to ensure uniformity of student preparation)

• Courses are officially compared -and exchangeable- across universities; there are mostly standard curricula for technical subjects, which are often determined by the professional societies. These curricula consist of individual courses, which in the lower division (roughly equivalent to Vordiplom) are at least similar and often identical in content

• Course credit (attendance with grade) is transferable across universities; each university will assess the transcript (record of study, Studienbuch) of a `transferring' student, to determine and give credit for the `equivalent' series of courses at the university. Thus a student may complete a Bachelor's degree with a major in computer science at, say, the University of California at Berkeley, by having studied at one or two other universities or junior colleges (four-semester colleges for the lower division) along the way

• Curriculum and overall teaching quality is assessed by `outside' experts. A university obtains an accreditation for a course of study; these accreditations are renewed upon a (say) 5-yearly review of the departmental teaching by a panel of experts normally from other universities

• Student achievement is assessed by grades, given per individual course. A grading formula may be determined (within limits) by the individual instructor, even though the course syllabus may be rigidly determined by the faculty. Grades depend on homework (normally given per week), an in-class one-hour `midterm' written examination (Klausur), and a `final' three-hour written examination (Klausur) given in finals week immediately after the end of the semester teaching period. A course taken is therefore assessed immediately and dynamically, and the course of study is assessed contemporaneously

• Progress in a curriculum is often dependent on specific course sequences: one may only enrol in a certain courses if one has successfully completed the prerequisite courses; e.g., one must complete Calculus I successfully before being able to enrol in Calculus II.

• All teaching is formally assessed by students: each course and each tutorial class each semester. These assessments are used to control the curriculum, the quality of teaching, and influence the teaching of individual professors and graduate students

• Students finish a Bachelor's degree (Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science) in their course of study typically in 8 semesters. These 8 semesters may be consecutive or may be spread over many years. But in each semester, if one is a full-time student, one must take a full load of courses. Part-time students, for example those who take courses in the evenings after their job ends, will take longer to complete their degrees. Afterwards, one may pursue graduate study, including a Master's (Master of Arts, Master of Science), a further, more specialised, course of study for 2 or 4 semesters; or a PhD (Doktorat)

• Students often enter university at 17 or 18, but a significant number also enter through their 20's, 30's and 40's.

• A Bachelor's is more than a Vordiplom at Bielefeld, but less than a Diplom

• To obtain a research degree, a PhD, one must be admitted as a graduate student: there are usually four semesters of course/seminar requirements at the best universities, plus exams: usually some general `preliminary' exams (in addition to those final exams in the courses) to test the overall knowledge in the speciality, plus a more specialist oral qualifying examination in the subject matter of the chosen thesis topic, to ensure a candidate is capable of doing original research in that topic. The exams are stringent and based on objective achievement rather than comparison, and a significant proportion of students may fail. There is usually a requirement for one or two foreign-language exams: demonstration of ability to understand and translate specialist work in one's area in foreign languages. Then, one pursues research under supervision of an individual advisor (Doktorvater), and writes (and defends by oral examination) one's thesis (Doktorarbeit), in however long a time it takes.

• Diplom degrees in my group RVS can be equivalent to good Master's degrees from good universities in the US. Or less. But US students will typically attain that level when they are 22 or 23. PhD's are obtained at any age: 4-10 years is `normal', with high variance. 10-15 years was not uncommon in some universities at some times. PhD's at the best universities are of the standard of a good Habilitation -- and the very best of them can be better.

• Steps are taken to introduce students to the task of studying and learning at a university. There are special programs and formal advice for beginning students, and there is a formal course structure with close monitoring of course enrollment and achievement. Semester drop-outs occur within a few weeks of the beginning of the semester (when they are permitted to do so); but reentry for succeeding semesters is often automatic, often just a formality. Once accepted (matriculated) at a university, students have great flexibility `in the large' to study or to do something else; within a particular semester, after the first two weeks they are constrained to pursue their course work and exams in the full load they have enrolled for

• Public (state-supported) universities usually come in two tiers: for example, the University of California accepts 5-10% of the top achievers in high school (Schule, including academic high school, Gymnasium) competitively; the California State University accepts any in the top 50% of school-leavers. (The University of California is a completely independent entity of the state, being controlled only by its charter and its Board of Regents: the Governor or state government has no power over it -- except for allocating it part of the state budget, and it may in principle be taken to court for abusing its charter. In contrast, the California State University is a branch of the state government). The University of California grants research degrees (PhD's) to its graduate students; the State University grants Master's but no research degrees. In addition, there are Junior Colleges which support intensively the lower division curricula (first four semesters) for the universities, as well as providing other sorts of courses for those wanting to take them. Many students find better teaching support for the lower division at the junior colleges than they do at the universities; they then `transfer' to universities for the upper division (final four semesters: Junior and Senior years; maybe different universities for Junior and Senior)

Studying in Germany

• Students are accepted by a university provided they have an Abitur (certificate of successful completion by examination of studies in an academic school).

• Although individuals with Abitur have a legal right to study at university, they may not be able to do so at their first-choice university

• There is no formal record of which subject students may wish to specialise in, so alternative universities are assigned without assessing this need

• The number of places for students in a Studiengang (course of study) is not fixed by the available departmental resources -- students may enter (and leave) at will

• There is usually a recommended time plan for the Studiengang: in practice, almost no students adhere to it.

• If a student doesn't adhere to the overall schedule, there are no formal consequences. There may be particular requirements for completing BlockPrüfungen (block exams), or for finishing a Diplomarbeit (undergraduate thesis), within a certain time after Anmeldung (formal application for the process), but such applications may be made without time constraint, and there is rarely a requirement for continual progress in study.

• Learning is on an individual basis and traditionally not supported by university teaching staff except through one Sprechstunde (office hour) per week per teacher for individual discussion

• A Vorlesung (lecture course) in a technical subject is often supported by a written Skript (lecture notes) or by text books, which lectures may or may not follow more-or-less closely: this is up to the individual professor

• Courses are not compared at all officially across universities; there are no standard curricula, or even recommended curricula, for technical subjects; Diplom degrees are accredited (anerkannt) by professional societies as professional qualifications

• Student assessment is usually by means of Prüfungen, oral exams assessed by individual professors, administered by direct arrangement between student and professor. There is no specific requirement that a student is enabled to find a willing examiner or take an exam within a preferred or determined time. These exams are taken by opportunity and individual student desire throughout the study period. Prerequisite courses must have been attended (literally - `listened to', zugehört). Exams in the Hauptstudium (roughly: upper division) may have contents agreed on an individual basis with the examining professor: great flexibility is possible.

• There is no outside assessment, and rarely even inside assessment, of teaching, learning, or achievement, either by students or by teaching staff. It is regarded as socially inappropriate for professors to comment on each other's courses. There is no objective comparison of student achievement across universities.

• Teaching quality is not assessed by students. In the Studiengang `Naturwissenschaftliche Informatik' (`Computer Science for Natural Science') in Bielefeld, an experimental assessment procedure was once attempted in a special program funded by the state of Nordrhein-Westfalen (North Rhine - Westphalia). It was not continued beyond one semester. The student organisation (`Fachschaft') in the Faculty of Technology has shown little interest in organising an evaluation of my lectures and seminars.

• Students finish a Diplom degree in their course of study often in 5-6 years, although 8 is relatively common and more is not unknown. There is with few exceptions no further study: one may get a paid research job as Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter (`scientific employee') with a professor, or in rarer cases obtain a stipend (Stipendium) from the state or national government, to pursue a Doktorat (PhD) qualification.

• To obtain a research degree, a Doktorat, one must present a Doktorarbeit (thesis) supervised by a Doktorvater (advisor) and examined by other faculty members as well as evaluated by referees. Traditionally, either examiners or referees or both may come from outside the faculty or university. A Doktorat is roughly comparable with a UK PhD or DPhil, but not necessarily with the best US PhD's. A further research degree-by-thesis, the Habilitation, is normally required to obtain a permanent academic job as Professor or Hochschuldozent (Lecturer)

• Students enter university at 19 or 20 (men a year later than women, because of military service) and typically finish a Diplom when they are 25-30. Students in the Grundstudium (first half) are typically 20-25 and those in the Hauptstudium typically 23-28.

• Diplom degrees in my group RVS can be equivalent to good Master's degrees from good universities in the UK. Or less. But UK students will typically attain that level when they are 22 or 23. are typically obtained at age Diplom + 3/4 years.

• No formal steps are taken to introduce students to the task of studying and learning at a university. The student societies organise `orientation weeks' for new students before they begin studies, which are comparable to or better than those at UK or US universities, and which are supported on a voluntary basis by teaching staff. Some resources are available for those who believe they are having trouble and wish to do better. No steps are taken to avoid drop-outs or loss of motivation. Students tend not to `drop out', but simply to suspend active study, and may or may not return to active study. Whatever their state, no distinction is made on university documents. There is thus no real official distinction between truly active students and dropouts (temporary or permanent)

• Universities are elite institutions catering to the top X% of those with an Abitur. However, various degrees of further education are available to almost all school-leavers. One may attend a Fachhochschule, similar to what were formerly Polytechnics in the UK, to obtain practical experience and training in science and applications, also engineering, business, art, design, social studies, counselling, etc. There are also a huge variety of guild qualifications for all aspects of business life, from shop assistants to car mechanics to bookkeepers to restaurateurs, which are taken seriously by those professions. The guild system is more highly developed than in other countries and widely admired, if not envied, throughout Europe.